Human Variation

1. In high altitude, the human body suffers many changes. In high altitude the climate is very harsh as it goes to both extremes everyday. The day is very hot and at night the temperature gets very low. At high altitudes, the air pressure is lower than at sea level. Therefore it makes it harder for oxygen to go through the human vascular system. This stress causes hypoxia, which is oxygen deprivation. This condition begins to limit the ability to do habitual physical activities, and gradually gets worse to the point that it can cause death from pulmonary and cerebral edema.This also creates a greater chance of heart failure. Within this, there is also vomiting, headaches, loss of appetite, distorted vision, fatigue, and difficulty in thinking clearly. Also, the low humidity and strong winds cause rapid dehydration. These changes disturb homeostasis and some humans may not be able to survive through it.                               
2. A short-term adaptation that the human body creates is to increase breathing. Due to these environmental stress, the human body greatly increases its regular breathing and heart rate patterns. As the heart pumps harder, the pulse rate and blood pressure also greatly increase. This is a very stressful process, especially for weak hearts. The facultative adaptation that the body undergoes is the creation of more red blood cells and capillaries to carry more oxygen. In this process, the lungs get larger so that it is easier to use and create oxygen and carbon dioxide. To make it easier to transfer these gases, the vascular muscles network increases. The developmental adaptation that comes about is that those living in high altitudes have 10 oxygen-processing genes that are not common in those who live in lowland. In particular, the EPAS1 gene is important, to survive the low oxygen pressure environment. In addition, high expression levels of the gene PDP2, which helps convert food into fuel, is important to adjust to low pressure. They are also able to produce more hemoglobin in their blood and expand lungs. The cultural adaptation that people in high altitudes may show, is a large diet. These groups may eat more than usual because without a clear sense of appetite, they still need to make sure they have enough food in their system to be healthy. They need food in their body to contain fuel. Also, their clothing styles of course include more layers.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
3. The benefits of studying the human variations in different environmental clines is that we get to discover more of why humans look the way we do and what accounts for our differences. It also allows us to understand how and why people are able to survive in different environments.  Looking at human variation in this perspective helps to inform people of the risks they will put their body through if they choose to go to high altitudes when they live in lowlands. For example, a person who has heart problems may want to go visit or live in a place of high altitudes, like Peru. The information gathered from explorations like this well be very helpful. If they are unaware of the consequences that this environmental stress creates to the human body, then they will putting their life at risk.                                                                       
4. It would be difficult to use race as an explanation for human variation in adaptions. Maybe I would say that Natives (indigenous people) have stronger hearts. The use of race to explain human variation is not good because it focuses on phenotypical traits. People are groups based on appearance, but it does not show a reason for these differences. In contrast, studying the environmental influences on adaptations helps to truly understand the differences between humans. It gives an explanation that shows that variations are not traits of inferiority, rather that they are essential elements in the survival of humans. 
       

The Importance of Language

            I did this experiment of using no symbolic language with a friend. I explained it to her before beginning so that she would not think I was just being rude. We were catching up with each other after some time of not talking, so that helped to actually keep the conversation going. During the conversation it was very hard for me to not make signs assuring her that I was listening. For example, I had to catch myself and stop myself from saying “Mhm” and nodding my head various times. I also could not give her my opinion or advice on what she was talking to me about. Therefore, it became less of a conversation since I was just a listener, and it got a little boring. Near the end of the fifteen minutes, I could tell that my friend was getting a little bored of talking “alone”. Her voice became lower with less enthusiasm and it became harder for her to keep talking. Overall, we were able to compete the experiment but I felt rude for not holding an actual conversation with her or show her that I was actually listening.

            My partner was definitely in control of the conversation the whole time. She was the only one allowed to talk or use any other form of language. Therefore, she was in charge of bringing up the topics that she wanted and changing to different topics when she wanted to. She actually avoided asking me questions because she knew I could not respond. In this case, my friend had complete power in this conversation. She was able to talk about whatever she wanted and nobody would interrupt her. She could also change subjects whenever she wanted.

            In the scenario of different cultures, the culture with the spoken language has the advantage over the one that does not. With spoken language it is easier to communicate complex ideas. It will be much easier to explain these ideas so people will understand what you are trying to convey. With this advantage and many more, the speaking culture will probably feel like they are superior to the culture that does not use this language. Also, if the speaking culture tries to communicate with the other they will probably get annoyed. They would have a bad attitude because they do not receive feedback or might not understand what the other person is saying. An example of such scenario today would be between those who can speak and the deaf community. Although some deaf people can speak, some only use sign language.

            For the second part of the experiment, I felt a little better because I was able to actually hold a conversation with my friend. I was giving her feedback and we could both ask and answer questions. However, it was still difficult to contain myself from nodding and moving my hands. Again, there were many occasions where I had to catch myself and put my hands down from trying to make an expression with them. It was also difficult to not use different tones, especially when I was trying to express agreement or excitement. I think the hardest aspect was trying to contain my facial movements/expressions. For instance, it was very hard to not move my eyebrows and to not smile/laugh. This time, my friend enjoyed the conversation more. She was having a little fun trying to make me laugh, but also calling me out when I did anything I told her I was not supposed to. She did not have much difficulty understanding me because even without the body language, I could express myself with words. My words were sufficient language to explain the ideas I wanted to get across.

            This part of the experiment showed me that our signs are sort of extra. It is not necessary to have many hand motions or facial expressions in order to get your idea across. Although these signs do help to make a conversation more interesting or expressive, they are not very necessary. With body language, people get to see the emotions that the other person feels about what they are saying. They also get more descriptive information about what they are talking. It could be showing the size of something with hands or showing an action with the whole body. Overall, it is and extra element that adds to the whole conversation.

            The advantage of being able to read body language is that it enables everyone to get the point across more clearly. An example would be that if a person does not know what left means, they will still know what way to go when a person points to the left. Benefits like this from body language could help find resources, survive, and reproduce.

            People who can not read body language would be those who are partially or completely blind. Sometimes body language can be deceiving so it might be better to not see it. Such a situation would be when somebody does a rude body sign. It is always better to live without the negativity, so it will not make people feel bad. 

Piltdown Hoax

     In 1912, archaeologist Charles Dawson claimed to have found a piece of an ancient human skull. His discovery occurred near the English town Louis, in the Piltdown village. He claimed that he had found a jawbone, which was apparently part of the same skull.The shape of the bone was like the jawbone of an ape, but the teeth were flat like a human's. Dawson invited the geologist Arthur Woodward and French paleontologist father Pierre Tay to his investigation. With their support, the discovery was thought to be the first remains of primitive humans to be found in England. It was believed that the species that directly connected apes and humans had been found. Another supporter of the conclusion was English anatomist, Arthur Keith. The newspapers called this discovery the Piltdown Man. 
     However, after World War II scientists ha learned to roughly date fossils through fluorine testing. In 1949 a fluorine test was done on the Piltdown fossils and the results showed that they were pretty young, far younger than what they were presented as. Then, in 1953 scientist launched the first full-scale analysis on the fossils with better dating methods. This led to the discovery that the bones had been stained by hand and the fossils had probably been cut using a steel knife. Under a microscope the teeth showed evidence that they had been filed down. It was also discovered that the jawbone was less than 100 years old, and was from a female orangutan. The pieces that did not match to a human skull were completely removed so the reality was not discovered earlier. Dawson was the main suspect of planning the hoax, and it was later found that he also forged at least half a dozen of other archaeological finds. Only a few people thought Woodward was the co-conspirator because he kept searching for more fossils even after Dawson had died. Father Tay stayed quiet after the reveal of the hoax so he is believed to have been a co-conspirator. Keith did have a big motive to go along with the lie because it supported his personal theory on human evolution. Martin Hinton, a volunteer at the Natural History Museum, became another suspect. There was evidence against him, because carved bones with the same stain that was on the Piltdown Man were found in his trunk.
     There were various human faults that came into play for this hoax. One of them was jealousy from some scientists who did not like that primitive remains had been found in other countries, but not in England. Another factor was ego/pride, because England felt proud that their human ancestors might be the oldest of all the ones found. In addition, I think the human fault of following people according to prestige/fame played a role. People were afraid to question the findings of these recognized people. Questioning and re-testing is a large part of the scientific process, and all of these faults created a barrier that did not allow for questioning. Therefore, they negatively impacted the scientific process.
     The positive aspects of the scientific process that helped to reveal the hoax, were better lab tests and dating methods. The new technique of fluorine testing that developed after WWII helped to obtain dating results. Also, a wide study by different scientists allowed new information to be discovered. The use of microscopes also helped to gain the detailed information that served as evidence for the hoax reveal.
     I do not think that it is possible to remove the human factor from science, because it is humans who are conducting the experiments and making the discoveries. I think there will always be an element of human nature that is faulty and that will get mixed into the process. I do not think that I would remove the human factor from science, because it is what makes it a process. The scientific process occurs through the re-testing of existing experiments and material, so without the doubt of human error this process would not occur.
     The lesson I have learned is to question the information that I am given, especially from unverified sources. I learned that as humans, we will usually include self interest in the information we give out, so questioning information is a good idea. The possibility of having false information, even from known sources, is still there so it is a good habit to question information.
   

1. Homologous Traits:
    a) Both the frog and rabbit have a homologous trait. Frogs are the largest group of the amphibian class. They live all over the world, and require to live near water sources to be able to reproduce. They are characterized by their abilities to jump, make croaking sounds, having slimy skin, and bulging eyes. Also, frogs have four limbs folded under their body, webbed feet, no tail, range in many different colors, and some are toxic. Rabbits are mammals that live in various habitats. They are herbivores with long ears, short tails, strong hind legs, and long rear feet. Also, they have fur of different color, depending if they are domestic or wild. The wild rabbits usually have brown or tan fur so they can camouflage, and domestic ones are usually black, white, or spotted. Rabbits are characterized by a great sense of sight, hearing, and great ability to run and jump.

   b) The forelimbs of frogs and rabbits are homologs. The forelimbs of frogs are constructed of the humerus, ulna, radius, and carpal bones.The forelimbs are mainly used to move and balance themselves. They support the stout body of the frog when they sit or walk. These front legs also help to absorb the impact when they land from a jump. On the other hand, rabbits mainly use their forelimbs for the claws that grow on them. They also use them to hold on to things, especially food, with the paws. This forelimb is divided into an upper arm (brachium), middle forearm (antebrachium), and distal hand (manus). They use their claws on the forelimb to dig the ground and build their home, known as burrows. The rabbit evolved its front legs to use as a digging tool, for the need to hide from predators and have a place to live.

   c) The common ancestor of the frog and rabbit is a fish (Eusthenopteron), which lived more than 385 million years ago. The similar structure of forelimbs, for the frog and rabbit, that is traced back to this fish shows that they share an evolutionary origin.

       

2. Analogous Traits:
   a) Two species that possess an analogous trait are worms and snakes. Worms and snakes have many physical similarities. They are both long and legless creatures. Worms are part of invertebrate phyla. There are various types of worms but most share a cylindrical and tubular body shape. They can live in wet or dry habitats, so they are a key in the food chains of many ecosystems. Also, some are parasites and other are free-living. Snakes are carnivores and also have lots of different species. They do not have movable eyelids, limbs, ear openings, and a bladder. Snakes are amniote vertebrates covered in scales.
   b) The shape of the snake and worm are analogous. The snake and worm evolved this shape to dig into the ground. The ground is their main habitat and they use their digging abilities to protect themselves from predators.
   c) In reality, the snake evolved to be able to dig and build its underground tunnels. They did not evolve from a type of worm. Snakes are more related to the Komodo dragon. They evolved from a reptile, like lizard, and happened to get a body/shape like a worm.   
    

         
                                 

Darwin

1. Alfred Russel Wallace greatly influenced Charles Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection.
2. Wallace was a British biologist who created a similar theory of natural selection to that of Darwin's. He was also influenced by Thomas Malthus' work about the pressure of population growth. Wallace concluded that animals and plants must also be under this same pressure, like humans. He described that these other living things could not reproduce freely due to their environment and natural selection. https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/history_14
3. The first point that all organisms have the potential to reproduce exponentially, is the same point that Wallace tried to prove wrong. He also used it as a basis to prove that natural selection helped to avoid this. The second point of explaining why reproduction does not occur freely was also explained by Wallace who suggested that the environment plays a big role. In addition, the next four points about who gets the limited resources was explained by Wallace as the traits that better enable them to gain them, or natural selection.
4. No, Darwin could not have developed his theory without Wallace's help. At least not at the time that he did. It would have taken him much more time to figure it all out on his own. Also, Darwin's Theory was so similar to Wallace's, so it was of great help to him.
5. The attitude of the church made Darwin scared to publish his work. He did not want to be punished by the church or have his career ended.